Sepsis is a serious medical condition that is characterized by a whole-body inflammatory state (called a systemic inflammatory response syndrome or SIRS) and the presence of a known or suspected infection. The body may develop this inflammatory response to microbes in the blood, urine, lungs, skin, or other tissues. An incorrect layman's term for sepsis is blood poisoning, more aptly applied to Septicemia, below.
Septicemia (also septicæmia or erroneously Septasemia and Septisema) is a related but deprecated (formerly sanctioned) medical term referring to the presence of pathogenic organisms in the blood-stream, leading to sepsis. The term has not been sharply defined. It has been inconsistently used in the past by medical professionals, for example as a synonym of bacteremia, causing some confusion. The present medical consensus is therefore that the term "septicemia" is problematic and should be avoided.
Sepsis Terminology
Severe sepsis occurs when sepsis leads to organ dysfunction, low blood pressure (hypotension), or insufficient blood flow (hypoperfusion) to one or more organs (causing, for example, lactic acidosis, decreased urine production, or altered mental status). Sepsis can lead to septic shock, multiple organ dysfunction syndrome (formerly known as multiple organ failure), and death. Organ dysfunction results from sepsis-induced hypotension (< 90 mmHg or a reduction of ≥ 40 mmHg from baseline) and diffuse intravascular coagulation, among other things.
Bacteremia is the presence of viable bacteria in the bloodstream. Likewise, the terms viremia and fungemia simply refer to viruses and fungi in the bloodstream. These terms say nothing about the consequences this has on the body. For example, bacteria can be introduced into the bloodstream during toothbrushing. This form of bacteremia almost never causes problems in normal individuals. However, bacteremia associated with certain dental procedures can cause bacterial infection of the heart valves (known as endocarditis) in high-risk patients. Conversely, a systemic inflammatory response syndrome can occur in patients without the presence of infection, for example in those with burns, polytrauma, or the initial state in pancreatitis and chemical pneumonitis.
Sepsis is common and also more dangerous in elderly, immunocompromised, and critically-ill patients. It occurs in 1–2% of all hospitalizations and accounts for as much as 25% of intensive-care unit (ICU) bed utilization. It is a major cause of death in intensive-care units worldwide, with mortality rates that range from 20% for sepsis to 40% for severe sepsis to >60% for septic shock.
Sepsis Symptoms
In addition to symptoms related to the provoking infection, sepsis is characterized by evidence of acute inflammation present throughout the entire body, and is, therefore, frequently associated with fever and elevated white blood cell count (leukocytosis) or low white blood cell count and lower-than-average temperature. The modern concept of sepsis is that the host's immune response to the infection causes most of the symptoms of sepsis, resulting in hemodynamic consequences and damage to organs. This host response has been termed systemic inflammatory response syndrome (SIRS) and is characterized by hemodynamic compromise and resultant metabolic derangement. Outward physical symptoms of this response frequently include a high heart rate (above 90 beats per minute), high respiratory rate (above 20 breaths per minute), elevated WBC count (above 12,000) and elevated or lowered body temperature (under 36 °C or over 38 °C). Sepsis is differentiated from SIRS by the presence of a known pathogen. For example SIRS and a positive blood culture for a pathogen indicates the presence of sepsis. Without a known infection you can not classify the above symptoms as sepsis, only SIRS.
This immunological response causes widespread activation of acute-phase proteins, affecting the complement system and the coagulation pathways, which then cause damage to the vasculature as well as to the organs. Various neuroendocrine counter-regulatory systems are then activated as well, often compounding the problem. Even with immediate and aggressive treatment, this may progress to multiple organ dysfunction syndrome and eventually death.
Sepsis Definition
According to the American College of Chest Physicians and the Society of Critical Care Medicine
- Lungs
- acute lung injury (ALI) (PaO2/FiO2 < 300) or acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) (PaO2/FiO2 < 200)
- Brain
- encephalopathy
- symptoms:
- agitation
- confusion
- coma
- etiologies:
- ischemia
- hemorrhage
- microthrombi
- microabscesses
- multifocal necrotizing leukoencephalopathy
- Liver
- disruption of protein synthetic function: manifests acutely as progressive coagulopathy due to inability to synthesize clotting factors
- disruption of metabolic functions: manifests as cessation of bilirubin metabolism, resulting in elevated unconjugated serum bilirubin levels (indirect bilirubin)
- Kidney
- oliguria and anuria
- electrolyte abnormalities
- volume overload
- Heart
- systolic and diastolic heart failure, likely due to cytokines that depress myocyte function
- cellular damage, manifest as a troponin leak (although not necessarily ischemic in nature)
More specific definitions of end-organ dysfunction exist for SIRS in pediatrics.
- Cardiovascular dysfunction (after fluid resuscitation with at least 40 ml/kg of crystalloid)
- hypotension with blood pressure < 5th percentile for age or systolic blood pressure < 2 standard deviations below normal for age, OR
- vasopressor requirement, OR
- two of the following criteria:
- unexplained metabolic acidosis with base deficit > 5 mEq/L
- lactic acidosis: serum lactate 2 times the upper limit of normal
- oliguria (urine output < 0.5 ml/kg/hr)
- prolonged capillary refill > 5 seconds
- core to peripheral temperature difference > 3°C
- Respiratory dysfunction (in the absence of cyanotic heart disease or known chronic lung disease)
- the ratio of the arterial partial-pressure of oxygen to the fraction of oxygen in the gases inspired (PaO2/FiO2) < 300 (the definition of acute lung injury), OR
- arterial partial-pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) > 65 torr (20 mmHg) over baseline PaCO2 (evidence of hypercapnic respiratory failure), OR
- supplemental oxygen requirement of greater than FiO2 0.5 to maintain oxygen saturation ≥ 92%
- Neurologic dysfunction
- Glasgow Coma Score (GCS) ≤ 11, OR
- altered mental status with drop in GCS of 3 or more points in a patient with developmental delay/mental retardation
- Hematologic dysfunction
- platelet count < 80,000/mm3 or 50% drop from maximum in chronically thrombocytopenic patients, OR
- international normalized ratio (INR) > 2
- Disseminated Intravascular Coagulation
- Renal dysfunction
- serum creatinine ≥ 2 times the upper limit of normal for age or 2-fold increase in baseline creatinine in patients with chronic kidney disease
- Hepatic dysfunction (only applicable to infants > 1 month)
- total serum bilirubin ≥ 4 mg/dl, OR
- alanine aminotransferase (ALT) ≥ 2 times the upper limit of normal
Consensus definitions, however, continue to evolve, with the latest expanding the list of signs and symptoms of sepsis to reflect clinical bedside experience.
Neonatal sepsis
In common clinical usage, sepsis specifically refers to the presence of a serious bacterial infection (SBI) (such as meningitis, pneumonia, pyelonephritis, or gastroenteritis) in the setting of fever. Criteria with regards to hemodynamic compromise or respiratory failure are not useful clinically because these symptoms often do not arise in neonates until death is imminent and unpreventable.
It is difficult to clinically exclude sepsis in newborns less than 90 days old that have fever (defined as a temperature > 38°C (100.4°F). Except in the case of obvious acute viral bronchiolitis, the current practice in newborns less than 30 days old is to perform a complete workup including complete blood count with differential, blood culture, urinalysis, urine culture, and cerebrospinal fluid(CSF) studies and CSF culture, admit the newborn to the hospital, and treat empirically for serious bacterial infection for at least 48 hours until cultures are demonstrated to show no growth. Attempts have been made to see whether it is possible to risk stratify newborns in order to decide if a newborn can be safely monitored at home without treatment despite having a fever. One such attempt is the Rochester criteria.
A study performed at Strong Memorial Hospital in Rochester, showed that infants ≤ 60 days old meeting the following criteria were at low-risk for having a serious bacterial illness:
- generally well-appearing
- previously healthy
- full term (at ≥37 weeks gestation)
- no antibiotics perinatally
- no unexplained hyperbilirubinemia that required treatment
- no antibiotics since discharge
- no hospitalizations
- no chronic illness
- discharged at the same time or before the mother
- no evidence of skin, soft tissue, bone, joint, or ear infection
- WBC count 5,000-15,000/mm3
- absolute band count ≤ 1,500/mm3
- urine WBC count ≤ 10 per high power field (hpf)
- stool WBC count ≤ 5 per high power field (hpf) ''only in infants with diarrhea''
Those meeting these criteria likely do not require a lumbar puncture, and are felt to be safe for discharge home without antibiotic treatment, or with a single dose of intramuscular antibiotics, but will still require close outpatient follow-up.
Sepsis Diagnosis
The medical history and clinical examination can provide important elements regarding the cause and severity of sepsis.
The identification of the causative microbe in sepsis can provide useful information. Imaging (such as chest X-rays or CT scans) and laboratory techniques (such as urine microscopy or lumbar puncture) are often necessary to find the source of the infection. The exact causative organism is confirmed by microbiological culturing in the laboratory (blood cultures and cultures from suspected sites of infections such as urine cultures, sputum cultures, and so on). However, this is a slow process, as it takes a few days to grow up the cultures and correctly identify the pathogens. New molecular diagnostic tests are now available that uses genetic material from the pathogen to quickly (within hours) provide results. However, current practice is to directly prescribe broad spectrum antibiotics to the patient.
The effects of the condition on the function of the organs should be documented to guide therapy. This can involve measurement of blood levels of lactate, blood gas sampling, and other blood tests. Because patients on the intensive-care unit are predisposed to hospital-acquired infections (especially related to the presence of catheters), they may require surveillance cultures.
Procalcitonin has been suggested as a more specific marker for infection rather than inflammation, but studies are conflicting and further research is needed to establish proper use of this marker.
Sepsis Treatment
Adults and children
The therapy of sepsis rests on antibiotics, surgical drainage of infected fluid collections, fluid replacement and appropriate support for organ dysfunction. This may include hemodialysis in kidney failure, mechanical ventilation in pulmonary dysfunction, transfusion of blood products, and drug and fluid therapy for circulatory failure. Ensuring adequate nutrition—preferably by enteral feeding, but if necessary by parenteral nutrition—is important during prolonged illness.
A problem in the adequate management of septic patients has been the delay in administering therapy after sepsis has been recognized. Published studies have demonstrated that for every hour delay in the administration of appropriate antibiotic therapy there is an associated 7% rise in mortality. A large international collaboration was established to educate people about sepsis and to improve patient outcomes with sepsis, entitled the "Surviving Sepsis Campaign." The Campaign has published an evidence-based review of management strategies for severe sepsis, A recent meta-analysis showed that EGDT provides a benefit on mortality in patients with sepsis. As of December 2008 some controversy around its uses remains and a number of trials are ongoing in an attempt to resolve this.
In EGDT, fluids are administered until the central venous pressure (CVP), as measured by a central venous catheter, reaches 8-12 cm of water (or 10-15 cm of water in mechanically ventilated patients). Rapid administration of several liters of isotonic crystalloid solution is usually required to achieve this. If the mean arterial pressure is less than 65 mmHg or greater than 90 mmHg, vasopressors or vasodilators are given as needed to reach the goal. Once these goals are met, the mixed venous oxygen saturation (SvO2), i.e., the oxygen saturation of venous blood as it returns to the heart as measured at the vena cava, is optimized. If the SvO2 is less than 70%, blood is given to reach a hemoglobin of 10 g/dl and then inotropes are added until the SvO2 is optimized. Elective intubation may be performed to reduce oxygen demand if the SvO2 remains low despite optimization of hemodynamics. Urine output is also monitored, with a minimum goal of 0.5 ml/kg/h. In the original trial, mortality was cut from 46.5% in the control group to 30.5% in the intervention group.
During critical illness, a state of adrenal insufficiency and tissue resistance (the word 'relative' resistance should be avoided Treatment with corticosteroids might be most beneficial in those with septic shock and early severe acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), whereas its role in other patients such as those with pancreatitis or severe pneumonia is unclear. However, the exact way of determining corticosteroid insufficiency remains problematic. It should be suspected in those poorly responding to resuscitation with fluids and vasopressors. ACTH stimulation testing is not recommended to confirm the diagnosis.
Sepsis Prognosis
Prognosis can be estimated with the MEDS score.
Approximately 20–35% of patients with severe sepsis and 40–60% of patients with septic shock die within 30 days. Others die within the ensuing 6 months. Late deaths often result from poorly controlled infection, immunosuppression, complications of intensive care, failure of multiple organs, or the patient's underlying disease.
Prognostic stratification systems such as APACHE II indicate that factoring in the patient's age, underlying condition, and various physiologic variables can yield estimates of the risk of dying of severe sepsis. Of the individual covariates, the severity of underlying disease most strongly influences the risk of dying. Septic shock is also a strong predictor of short- and long-term mortality. Case-fatality rates are similar for culture-positive and culture-negative severe sepsis.
This article is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.
It uses material from the Wikipedia article on
"Sepsis"
All material adapted used from Wikipedia is available under the terms of the
Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.
Wikipedia® itself is a registered trademark of the Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.