New research reveals that UPFs may be consumed more out of emotional distress and addiction than pleasure, challenging assumptions about why we reach for processed snacks.
Study: Factors Affecting Ultra-Processed Food Consumption: Hedonic Hunger, Food Addiction, and Mood. Image Credit: beauty-box / Shutterstock
In a recent study published in the journal Food Science & Nutrition, researchers examined the relationship between ultra-processed food (UPF) intake and food addiction, hedonic hunger, and mood.
Food processing has become widespread, especially with the advent of technology. The degree of food processing and the purpose of processing are crucial determinants of population health. The NOVA classification system stratifies foods into four categories. One of these categories, UPFs, is defined as foods that contain many additives, undergo intensive industrial processing, and have deteriorated natural structures.
Anti-humectants, flavor enhancers, and emulsifiers are commonly used in UPF production, allowing UPFs to have low production costs, longer shelf lives, and intensified flavors. The benefits of UPFs, aggressive advertising, rapid urbanization, and increased female participation in business have contributed significantly to the widespread consumption of UPFs. However, their low nutritional value, addictive properties, and high fat and energy content pose a threat to public health.
About the study
In the present study, researchers examined the relationship between UPF intake and food addiction, mood, and hedonic hunger. The study was conducted among adults aged 18–65 in Ankara, Turkey, using a web-based survey between September 2024 and January 2025. Individuals with incomplete responses, psychiatric disorders, and eating disorders were excluded from the analysis.
Anthropometrics and demographics were self-reported. Food intake was assessed using the Screening Questionnaire of Highly Processed Food Consumption (sQ-HPF). Hedonic hunger was evaluated using the Power of Food Scale (PFS), and food addiction status was examined using the Yale Food Addiction Scale (YFAS). The Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21) was used to evaluate the emotional states of participants.
Descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the data. The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, kurtosis, skewness, histograms, and the coefficient of variation were used to assess the data distribution. The Pearson correlation coefficient was used to examine relationships between variables. An independent t-test was performed to evaluate between-group differences in mean values. A linear regression analysis was used to predict UPF intake.
Findings
The study included 3,997 adults, on average, aged 31.7. Most participants were female (63%) and unemployed (52.9%). The mean body mass index (BMI) was 24.5 kg/m2. More than 55% of subjects had normal weight, 11.7% were obese, 27.5% were overweight, and 5.6% were underweight. The mean scores on the sQ-HPF, PFS, and YFAS were 5.1, 2.8, and 2.9, respectively.
The average stress, depression, and anxiety scores on the DASS-21 were 5.9, 5.6, and 5.0, respectively. Over 55% of subjects had a low UPF intake, and nearly 45% had a high UPF intake. A notably high proportion—86.7%—of subjects were classified as having food addiction according to the YFAS. The authors note that this elevated rate may reflect sample or scale characteristics and should be interpreted with caution. There was a significant, positive relationship between YFAS and sQ-HPF scores. Likewise, sQ-HPF showed significant, positive relationships with DASS-21 subdimension scores.
On average, individuals with high UPF intake were younger (28.8 years) than those with low UPF intake (34.1 years). Moreover, single and unemployed participants had significantly higher intake of UPFs than married and employed individuals. No significant differences in UPF intake were observed between groups based on PFS score, BMI category, and the number of main meals and snacks.
Notably, YFAS and DASS-21 scores were significantly higher among individuals with high UPF intake. The linear regression model found that age, gender, and YFAS and DASS-21 scores significantly affected the sQ-HPF score. Specifically, UPF intake was positively associated with food addiction and mood symptoms, and inversely associated with age and gender.
The authors also noted that the study did not assess participants’ nutrition knowledge or awareness, which could be a factor influencing the observed lack of association between UPF intake and hedonic hunger. This limitation may have impacted the findings related to hedonic hunger.
Conclusions
In sum, the findings indicate that people with increased consumption of UPFs had significantly elevated food addiction and negative mood scores. Further, the consumption of UPFs was more common among female, younger, unemployed, and single participants, and mood symptoms and food addiction were more intense in these participants. Notably, there was no relationship between UPF intake and hedonic hunger. The authors suggest that the absence of an observed association between UPF intake and hedonic hunger may be influenced by unmeasured factors such as nutrition awareness, as well as the cross-sectional nature of the study.
The study’s limitations include the snowball sampling method, which leads to selection bias and affects the generalizability of the results; the cross-sectional design, which precludes causal inference; and the use of self-reported data, which may yield unreliable results. Additionally, the high prevalence of food addiction observed in this sample may be influenced by the assessment tool or sample characteristics.
Overall, the findings underscore the impact of mood and food addiction on UPF intake. Thus, interventions and policies aimed at psychosocial processes are needed to promote healthy and conscious eating behaviors.