A global analysis of over 314,000 food items found that hyper-palatable foods, engineered to drive overeating, are widespread in the US and Europe, but especially prevalent in the US and Bulgaria. Countries like Italy and Germany offer healthier food environments, while the US leads in foods high in fat, sugar, and sodium.
Study: Examination of hyper-palatable foods and their nutrient characteristics using globally crowdsourced data. Image Credit: sasirin pamai / Shutterstock
In a recent study published in the journal PLoS ONE, researchers at the University of Kansas, USA, analyzed the prevalence and nutrient composition of hyper-palatable foods (HPFs) across 17 countries using crowdsourced data.
Background
Can a combination of fat, salt, and sugar make food irresistible? Research suggests it can. HPFs, which are engineered with specific levels of fat, sugar, and sodium, appear to activate the brain’s reward systems in a way that drives overeating and contributes to obesity. These foods can trigger a desire to eat that is not based on hunger, but rather on the stimulation of reward pathways. It is important to note that ‘wanting’ (the motivation to eat) and ‘liking’ (the sensory pleasure of eating) are considered distinct in neuroscience, with HPFs particularly implicated in increased ‘wanting’ that drives excess intake. Although most studies focus on the United States (US), multinational food companies operate globally. To understand how food environments around the world are shaped, further research using international data is urgently needed.
About the Study
Researchers used the Open Food Facts database, a globally crowdsourced repository of food data, to evaluate food products from 17 countries across North America, Europe, and South America. After removing beverages and incomplete entries, the final dataset included 314,229 unique food items. Foods were classified as hyper-palatable based on a standardized definition that includes three nutrient combinations: fat and sodium (FSOD), fat and sugar (FS), and carbohydrate and sodium (CSOD), each with specific quantitative thresholds.
The study also employed the NOVA food classification system, which categorizes foods based on their processing level. Foods with a NOVA score of 4 were classified as ultra-processed foods (UPFs). Only countries with more than 1,000 food items were included in the analysis. The US was used as a reference due to its documented high prevalence of hyper-palatable foods.
All data were examined for quality, and implausible entries were excluded. Researchers applied logistic and ordered beta regression models to compare the likelihood and nutrient composition of HPFs across countries. They also assessed how much overlap existed between hyper-palatable and UPF items. Data visualization techniques, including stacked bar plots, were used to illustrate national differences. All analyses were performed using R software.
It is important to emphasize that, due to the crowdsourced nature of the Open Food Facts database and variable product counts across countries and food categories, these results are not nationally representative. The data are more robust for countries with higher submission rates, which are primarily in Western Europe and North America.
Study Results
The dataset included food items from 17 countries. The US contributed nearly half of the total items. France, Italy, Germany, and Spain were also major contributors. Foods high in carbohydrates, such as sugary snacks and cereals, represented almost half of the total items analyzed.
HPFs were common in all countries, ranging from 54.5% of food items in Australia to almost 68% in Bulgaria. The US had one of the highest proportions at 63 percent. The most common nutrient combination among HPF was FSOD, followed by FS and CSOD.
Statistical models indicated that food items from most countries were less likely to be classified as HPF compared to those from the United States. Bulgaria had the highest prevalence of HPF and was the only country with higher odds. Switzerland had a statistically similar proportion to the US. Italy and Germany had significantly lower proportions of HPF items. The nutrient composition of HPF items also varied across countries. Foods from the US typically contain higher levels of palatability-related nutrients, such as fat, sugar, carbohydrates, and sodium compared to those from other countries.
On average, HPF items exceeded their classification thresholds by large margins. FSOD items exceeded the criteria by 116% and 131%, respectively. FS items surpassed their thresholds by 106% and 70%. CSOD items exceeded their respective criteria by 40% and 229%.
The study also examined the overlap between HPF and UPFs, defined using the NOVA classification system. In the US, 50% of food items were classified as both. Bulgaria had a large percentage of HPF-only foods. Italy had the highest proportion of foods that were neither HPF nor ultra-processed at nearly 29%.
Food type played a major role. Sugary snacks, salty snacks, and dairy products often qualify as both HPF and ultra-processed. Fruits and vegetables were rarely classified as either. Some products, such as salty snacks and meats, were frequently HPF only. Others, such as cereals and sauces, were usually ultra-processed but not HPF. These distinctions highlight the importance of analyzing both categories separately. The study authors note that, while HPF and UPF categories can overlap, especially in the US, they are conceptually and nutritionally distinct, and their risks to health may differ.
Overall, the US food supply had more hyper-palatable items with higher levels of palatability-related nutrients. In contrast, countries like Italy and Germany had healthier food environments.
Conclusions
To summarize, this study revealed significant differences in the availability and composition of palatability-related nutrients in HPFs across countries. The US had the highest prevalence and most extreme formulation of these nutrients, while countries like Italy and Germany had more favorable profiles. Bulgaria had the highest HPF prevalence, and Switzerland was statistically similar to the US in this respect.
The authors emphasize that foods classified as both hyper-palatable and ultra-processed, as defined by the NOVA classification system, may present a particularly high health risk compared to foods that are only one or the other. These findings support the need for targeted public health strategies, including the reformulation of food products and improved labeling. They also suggest policy interventions could include reducing the palatability-driving nutrient content of foods, changing their placement in stores, or even restricting sales or advertising to certain populations, as part of efforts to reshape food environments linked to obesity risk. Understanding how these foods are distributed across global markets can help shape more effective responses to rising rates of obesity and diet-related diseases.
However, the authors caution that because the Open Food Facts database is crowdsourced and not evenly representative across countries or food categories, the findings reflect patterns in the available dataset and not definitive national estimates. Broader international data collection would be needed for representative country-level conclusions.