COVID lockdown babies show language strengths at age four

By Dr. Priyom Bose, Ph.D.Reviewed by Lauren HardakerJul 17 2026

Four-year-olds born during England's first lockdown performed well in many language and reasoning tests, but researchers found signs that executive function skills may need extra support as this generation progresses through school.

Study: Developmental outcomes in 4-year-old children born in the first COVID-19 lockdown in England: preliminary findings from the Born In COVID Year – Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study. Image credit: Zamrznuti tonovi/Shutterstock.com

A recent Archives of Disease in Childhood study assessed the development of four-year-old children born during the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) lockdowns.

Developmental outcomes among children born during COVID-19 lockdown

The COVID-19 pandemic represented a global crisis that fundamentally reshaped daily routines and social structures. In England, public health restrictions from March 2020 to July 2021 led to prolonged lockdowns, severely limiting social contact, mandating distancing and face coverings, and restricting time outside the home. These interventions resulted in widespread closures of businesses, schools, childcare facilities, and recreational spaces, while family health services experienced significant disruptions due to staff redeployment and reduced in-person appointments.

Early childhood is a critical period for acquiring foundational language, executive function, and motor skills, all of which rely on diverse social and environmental experiences. Infants born during the lockdown spent their formative 18 months in environments characterized by less varied communication and social exposure, restricted access to play and learning resources, and limited physical exploration. Shifts in family dynamics further influenced language and socioemotional development. These foundational abilities are central to school readiness and long-term educational outcomes. National data reveal a post-pandemic decline in the proportion of 2-year-olds in England meeting key developmental milestones.

While research into motor skills is less extensive, available evidence suggests potential delays in young children born during the pandemic. Large-scale studies from the US and Canada report reductions in communication, social, and motor skills among children aged 12–24 months, findings echoed by smaller European studies.

Existing research on pandemic effects is heterogeneous, encompassing children born before, during, and within strict lockdown periods. For children born before the pandemic, most studies report negative impacts on communication and executive function, though some document minimal or positive effects.

Researchers assessed development in children born during lockdown

The Born In COVID Year-Core Lockdown Effects (BICYCLE) study investigated the developmental outcomes of 4-year-old children in England born during the COVID-19 lockdown, when formal schooling begins. The study focused on whether these children showed overall developmental differences or specific strengths and weaknesses.

The wider cross-sectional observational BICYCLE study includes children born before, during, and after lockdown, but this preliminary report included only those born during the initial lockdown (23 March–23 June 2020). Participants were recruited using stratified volunteer sampling to achieve representation across English regions and neighbourhood deprivation levels. Eligibility required English-speaking families, children not born very preterm, free of genetic disorders or developmental delay, and with a consistent primary caregiver.

Of the 205 children who participated, assessments at age 4 covered language, non-verbal reasoning, executive functioning, and motor skills, using five standardized tests and two parent/caregiver questionnaires. Language and non-verbal reasoning were assessed directly, while executive function and motor skills were measured using caregiver questionnaires. Most assessments were conducted remotely between May 2024 and June 2025.

Children born during lockdown show unexpected language strengths amid executive function concerns

Rather than finding widespread developmental delays, the researchers found that many of the children performed as well as, or even better than, expected for their age. Scores for sentence structure, expressive vocabulary, receptive vocabulary, and non-verbal reasoning all exceeded pre-pandemic norms, while word structure and motor skills were broadly in line with age-based expectations.

Despite these encouraging findings, one area consistently stood out. Caregivers reported significantly more executive-function difficulties than would typically be expected, particularly in skills related to working memory, planning, organization, and self-control. More children than expected also fell into the below-average range for executive function, while 5.4% received very low scores for word structure, compared with the 2% anticipated from pre-pandemic norms.

To better understand these findings, the researchers also compared each developmental skill with the children's non-verbal reasoning ability, a measure of their broader cognitive potential. Sentence structure and receptive vocabulary kept pace with this higher level of reasoning ability. However, expressive language, executive function, and motor skills did not, suggesting these areas were relative weaknesses compared with the children's overall cognitive profile rather than clear developmental deficits. 

Notably, expressive language and motor skills still generally met age-based expectations, whereas executive function remained the most consistent area of concern.

Building foundations for post-lockdown childhood

Caregiver-reported executive function remains a key concern for children born during lockdown, with expressive language and motor skills appearing relatively weaker than the children's non-verbal reasoning ability, despite generally meeting age-based expectations. In a relatively large-scale sampledirectly assessing language and non-verbal reasoning and indirectly assessing executive function and motor skills, language and motor skills generally met or exceeded expected standards, although targeted support for executive function may be necessary.

The researchers suggest that classroom interventions may benefit from prioritizing behavioral regulation, executive function-focused strategies, and explicit expressive language support over individual screening or specialist referrals. These findings are relevant for children affected by lockdowns in the UK and elsewhere, as well as those born soon after restrictions lifted. Ongoing research is needed to identify optimal strategies for supporting this generation. The BICYCLE study offers a foundation for understanding and addressing early-life impacts of severe social restrictions.

Download your PDF copy now!