Struggling to make ends meet may slow brain development in infants

By Dr. Liji Thomas, MDReviewed by Benedette Cuffari, M.Sc.Jan 12 2026

A new study shows that whether families can reliably meet basic needs, not just how much they earn, may shape infants’ brain development as early as the first year of life. 

Study: Income insufficiency impacts early brain development in infants facing increased psychosocial adversity: A network-based approach. Image credit: Shutterstock AI Generator / Shutterstock.com

Among infants living in high rates of adversity, researchers in a recent PNAS study identify specific psychosocial factors that strongly correlate with altered brain development within the first year of life.

The impact of trauma on the brain

Brain development during infancy is characterized by rapid growth, accelerated synapse formation, and neural circuit maturation. These changes contribute to neuroplasticity, which refers to the ability of the brain to form new neural connections, a physiological process that can also be affected by early life experiences.

Exposure to trauma during infancy has been associated with structural and functional alterations in the brain that persist into childhood to impact cognitive development and educational achievement. Domestic abuse, maternal stress, high levels of stress, severe forms of neglect, and poverty are some examples of early psychosocial adversities that have been found to negatively affect child development.

Despite strong evidence confirming the deleterious effects of poverty on normal development, there remains a lack of widely adopted, practical screening strategies that can isolate specific, modifiable risk factors during infancy. The complexity of different socioeconomic status (SES) measurements, combined with the various environmental factors that contribute to both neurological development and poverty, further increases the difficulty of identifying specific components that can be targeted by prevention and intervention strategies.

EEG tracking links family hardship to infant brain activity

The researchers of the current study used electroencephalography (EEG) data from the Baby Steps study, an ongoing investigation interested in identifying psychosocial factors during infancy that predict the detection of autism or developmental delay at two years of age. The Baby Steps study cohort comprised infants of families experiencing high levels of economic hardship and stress who were attending regular well visits at a large urban primary care clinic.

Infant visits occurred at four, nine, and twelve months of age, during which resting-state EEG was obtained, along with parent-provided data on household SES, stress, and available resources. A total of 667 EEGs from 293 infants were included in the final analysis.

Exploratory graph analysis (EGA) examined correlations between multiple SES- and stress-related adversity factors and early brain activity trajectories during the first year of life. This statistical method detects conditional associations between variables while minimizing the influence of weak or indirect correlations across multiple factors.

The EGA analysis comprised a network structured around three dimensions including those related to socioeconomic status, stress, income adequacy, and recent life events, as well as EEG measurements such as periodic slope estimate and 4-month (4 m) aperiodic power. Network modeling was also used to identify specific socioeconomic and psychological risk factors implicated in altered infant brain development.

Financial strain predicts slower maturation of infant brain activity

Approximately 72 % of households in the study cohort used public insurance, whereas about 58 % were below the federal 200 % poverty line. Moderate to high levels of stress were observed among many of the families in this study, with 24.1 % reporting “never” or “rarely” having enough money to meet their family’s daily needs.

EGA findings confirmed the highly influential role of income sufficiency in the association between SES and stress. Income sufficiency was strongly implicated in both objective income level and educational attainment, as mothers who reported never having sufficient income were more likely to have lower educational attainment and greater exposure to stressful life events. Notably, a substantial proportion of families reporting “always” or “usually” having enough income still fell below the federal poverty threshold, highlighting income sufficiency as a distinct and clinically relevant measure.

Income insufficiency also correlated with altered EEG developmental trajectories, particularly slower rates of change in periodic total power and alpha-related measures across infancy, with differences in periodic spectra becoming evident by nine months of age. Slower maturation of EEG power may predict delayed cognitive maturation and behavioral disorders in childhood; however, this association must be investigated in future studies.

Income insufficiency may delay early brain maturation in infants

The study findings suggest that infants being raised in low-income households that are incapable of adequately supporting their family’s needs are at greater risk of experiencing altered brain activity during their first year of life. These neurological alterations were characterized by lower total periodic power, as well as slower increases in alpha peak frequency and consistently lower beta periodic power, reflecting delayed maturation of neural activity.

To mitigate long-term developmental risk and improve outcomes in children facing socioeconomic adversity, various public health strategies have been proposed. For example, the Baby’s First Years study has examined the potential benefits of providing monthly payments to mothers experiencing poverty during the first year of their child’s life; however, additional research is needed to establish the magnitude and duration of financial support required to promote sustained healthy development.

Our network approach highlights the potential for a screening tool to identify vulnerable infants early and guide pathways for targeted interventions.